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LMI-Learning is being developed by the Institute for Employment Research , University of Warwick, together with KnowNet. Financial support has come from the Sector Skills Development Agency.

Topic Study - Gender

Careers practitioners are familiar with the rhetoric around 'raising aspirations' and 'promoting equality of opportunity', however the labour market isn't always a model of equity.

This topic study explores issues around gender and the labour market. You can also access some great - but depressing - resources all about gender issues in the labour market.

Gender

The word 'gender' is sometimes used interchangeably with 'sex' (i.e. male or female), but more accurately the word:

describes the socially-constructed roles, rights and responsibilities that communities and societies consider appropriate for men and women…

…Becoming girls, boys, women & men is something we learn from our families & society…

…a very fluid concept.

www.unicef.org/gender



Just look at the two images below to be reminded of how the concept of 'being female' & femininity has changed over time:

Figure 1 - the changing concept of 'being female'
What you can find in this section:

But what does this have to do with the Labour Market? This section explores:

Occupational Segregation - a key feature of the labour market in the UK (and around the world) is occupational segregation. There are two types of occupational segregation, horizontal and vertical, find out more about what this means here

Segregation & Stereotyping - Gender segregation creates a class of jobs, which is then subject to societal stereotypes, stereotypes reinforce the process of segregation, find out more about what this means here

Gender: Apprenticeships - Apprenticeships, until recently known as Modern Apprenticeships (MA) have been fully operational since 1995, very quickly gender segregation within them became established, how can this be explained? Find out more here

Images - a picture tells a thousand words? Click here to view some images that you might use to stimulate discussion on the role of women in the workplace

Further material in the NGRF:

NGRF - Gender - If you are particularly interested in issues affecting women, don't forget to look at the Equal Opportunitites/Gender section of the NGRF website.

NGRF - Career theory for women - Career Theories that inform current practice in the UK were primarily formulated to explain the career development of men. Women's career development is, however, generally different from men. You can read an extensive treatment of this topic in this section within the NGRF website

Occupational segregation

Horizontal and Vertical segregation

A key feature of the labour market in the UK (and around the world) is occupational segregation. There are two types of occupational segregation:

Horizontal segregation:
Horizontal segregation: when men & women commonly work in different types of occupations
Vertical segregation:
Vertical segregation: when men are commonly working in higher grade occupations & women lower

Examples of horizontal segregation, by industry and occupation:

Industrial Sectors (2005)
Women Men
Health & Social Work 79% 21%
Education 73% 27%
Manufacturing 25% 75%
Construction 10% 90%
EOC (2006) Facts about women & men in Great Britain. (www.eoc.org.uk)
Occupational Sectors (2005)
Women Men
Personal service 84% 16%
Admin/Secretarial 81% 19%
Professional 42% 58%
Managers 34% 66%
Skilled trades 8% 92%
EOC (2006) Facts about women & men in Great Britain. (www.eoc.org.uk)

Overall:

Nearly two-thirds of women are employed in 12 occupational groups

Two thirds of men are employed in 26 occupational groups

EOC (2005) Facts about women & men in Great Britain. (www.eoc.org.uk)

Examples of vertical occupational segregation:

glass ceiling image- source: www.womensrightsny.com/lawyer-attorney-1081670.html The Glass Ceiling
Women Men
MPs: 19.5% 80.5%
Local Authority leaders: 13.8% 86.2%
Directors in FTSE 100 companies: 10.5% 89.5%
CEOs of media companies: 10.5% 89.5%
Editors, national newspapers: 17.4% 82.6%
Progress is painfully slow & at risk of going into reverse.
EOC (2007) Sex & Power: who runs Britain? 2007 EOC: Manchester, p.3/4

Segregation & Stereotyping

  • Gender segregation creates a class of jobs, which is then subject to societal stereotypes
  • Stereotypes reinforce the process of segregation
Miller et al (2004), p. 10 1

Segregation & stereotyping: some explanations:

Structural Individual
Discrimination Individual differences
Human capital IAG
Systemic barriers Parental Influence
Teaching
Image
Miller et al (2004), p. 28-49 2

Combating occupational segregation?

Research evidence indicates that gender segregation becomes less of an issue for females with age. However, this often occurs after key education and training decisions have been made.
Miller et al (2004), p. 49 3

Despite various government initiatives over the years:

  • Women are more likely than men to receive job-related training.
  • Government schemes (e.g. MAs) remain heavily gendered [type of training & uptake]
Breitenbach, E. (2006) 4

Gender: Modern Apprenticeships

A few key facts about gender and modern apprenticeships

  • Fully operational since 1995
  • Foundation MAs (NVQ2) & Advanced MA (NVQ3)
  • Not popular in the UK [cf with similar training routes in France & Germany]
  • Gender segregation quickly established
Miller et al (2004), p. 10 5

Government reviews and task-forces

Because of the problems recruiting non-traditional entrants to MAs, the government convened:

1st Cassels Review (2001)
The LSC & Connexions service, acting jointly where appropriate with a relevant NTO, should establish projects designed to increase participation by under-represented groups…
2nd National MA Taskforce, 2003 [Gardner]
Charged with expanding MAs and making recommendations for modifications.
Miller et al (2004), p. 10-12 6

So - how can the persistent occupational segregation in MAs be explained?

Despite the introduction of a new initiative, gender segregation is being re-established in a stereotypical fashion with long-term implications for young women and men's future pay and prospects.
Miller et al (2004) 7
Foundation Modern Apprenticeships (2005)
Women Men
Early years care & education 97% 3%
Hairdressing 91% 9%
Engineering 3% 97%
Construction 1% 99%
EOC (2006) Facts about women & men in Great Britain, p. 10 8

What needs to change?

Evidence gives different clues. On the one hand, employment cultures and practices are indicated:
Several young female apprenticeships had experienced bullying from other apprenticeships and one had been driven from her apprenticeship as a result (p vii)
It is important to recognise that employers are the gatekeepers to MAs (p 81)

Miller et al (2005) 9
On the other hand, the finger of blame is pointed at IAG:
The YP in this study had experienced no effective attempt to inform them about the MA…

…no evidence of any systematic attempt to challenge occupational stereotyping or encourage non-traditional decisions.
Fuller et al (2005), p. 41 10

What are the barriers to progress? Here are some suggestions:

  • Systemic barriers [e.g. systems to collate stats not compatible]
  • Resource constraints [e.g. LLSCs]
  • Traditional attitudes
  • Social stereotypes
  • Poor image of some sectors
  • Attitudes of employers
  • Operation of MAs [lack of places; YP recruited by employers, not TPs]
Miller et al (2005), p. 10-12 11

References

Images

Often perceptions of what is happening in the labour market have been influenced by grand rhetoric around labour market change, for example, portfolio workers operating out of paperless offices - you will have your own examples.

If you are a practitioner trying to challenge notions around occupational stereotyping the following resources may provide you with some powerful images that you could use to stimulate debate. Just how much has the labour market really changed?

Why not light the touch paper and stand back!

Got an image to share? Let us know!

We'd love to build up a library of other images. If you have a weblink that you can supply please let us know by emailing us at guidance.research _AT_ gmail _DOT_ com

Figure 2: Progress in the home…

from makingthemodernworld.org.uk

Figure 3: If it were a lady…

from jillposener.com

Figure 4: We are fully committed…

from essex.ac.uk

Figure 5: Prepare your daughter for working life…

from cevep.org.nz

Figure 6: Women at work…

from writing.upenn.edu

Figure 7: I brought you to the office…

from robrogers.com

Figure 8: Fantasyland

from filmakers.com
Last modified 2007-07-03 03:27 PM
Last cached: 2008-05-06 01:03 PM