Ethical issues arising from the use of the Internet in delivering information, advice, and guidance generally involve the quality of available resources, the nature of practitioner intervention, the nature of services provided at a distance, inappropriate access to information about an individual, and the equality of access to the Internet. The availability of information and communication technology (ICT) as a medium for delivering career resources and services presents some distinctive ethical problems that are described below.

Quality of Assessment and Information Resources

Assessments and information resources available on the Internet may be attractive yet inherently invalid and possibly harmful (Sampson & Bloom, 2001). Individuals could easily make important decisions on the basis of invalid data. This problem can be particularly serious given that computer-generated information is generally perceived as inherently accurate (Crowley, 1992; Elwork & Gutkin, 1985; Pulos, Fisher, & Stage, 1985; Sampson, 1990; Talbut, 1988). "Ethically and scientifically sound material coexists on the Internet with shoddy work that has not been evaluated at any level" (Clark, Horan, Tompkins-Bjorkman, Kovalski, & Hackett, 2000, p. 87). Few Web sites delivering career assessments actually describe how the measures were developed or provide evidence of the validity of the assessments available (Oliver & Zack, 1999; Wall, 2000). The quality of external links on Web sites developed by practitioners and organizations is also open to question (Offer & Sampson, 1999). Finally, there is also the possibility that information developers may be biased, and this bias may result in intentionally manipulating the data presented on a Web site, e.g. organizations wishing to portray an occupation or institution in the most positive manner possible (Gati, 1994).

Availability of User Support When Needed

Individuals’ self-help use of assessment and information resources on the Internet can serve as a stimulus to talk with a practitioner about questions they have or to plan how to act on what they have learned. The problem is that many sites do not make any suggestions about the circumstances where a practitioner might be of assistance. Prince, Chartrand, and Silver (2000) noted that ethical Internet Web sites delivering assessments and information need to address the potential need for practitioner assistance and provide information on how help can be secured.

Quality of Practitioner Intervention

The quality of the assistance that practitioners provide to individuals is strongly influenced by the training, experience, and supervision of the practitioner.

• Considerable inconsistency exists in the way practitioners represent their credentials on distance counseling Web sites. In a review of Web sites, the credentials of service delivery providers were vague or not stated (Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, 1997). If no information is available on the training and experience of the practitioner, individuals have little basis for making an informed decision about which practitioner is most likely to meet their needs.
• Inadequate training, experience, and supervision make it difficult for practitioners to provide appropriate recommendations about the selection, use, and follow-up of Internet-based assessments and information, as well as being skilled in the process of delivering services at a distance using a variety of communication technologies, e.g. the telephone, e-mail, chat, and videoconferencing.
• Computer-based test interpretations (CBTI) available to practitioners via the Internet provide a valuable second opinion after the practitioner has interpreted the test data. Practitioners, however, can be overly dependent on CBTI when they are unqualified in the construct being measured or in the assessment being used, resulting in an incomplete or inaccurate interpretation of test data (Sampson, 2000). Moreland, Eyde, Robertson, Primoff, and Most (1995) noted that completion of a degree program or the obtaining of a credential for independent practice is not sufficient for ethical use of CBTI if specific CBTI training has not been completed. It is also unethical to present a CBTI printout in place of writing a comprehensive report (Sampson, Shy, & Purgar, 2003).

Readiness for Use of Resources and Services

Some individuals have a high degree of readiness for decision making and require little or no assistance to benefit from use of Internet-based assessment and information resources. Other individuals have a low degree of readiness for decision making and require support from a practitioner in order to benefit from assessments and information.

• Readiness for using ICT is influenced by the capability of the individual to make appropriate choices (internal influence) and the complexity of family, social, economic, and organizational factors that influence decision making (external influence) (Sampson, Reardon, Peterson, & Lenz, 2004).
• Readiness to use ICT can also be influenced by limited verbal ability, goal instability and dependence, social and enterprising interests, limited knowledge, confidence and motivation, negative career thoughts, anxiety and depression, barriers to career choice, intuitive decision-making styles, and misconceptions about ICT (Samson, 1997).
• Readiness is determined by the practitioner and the individual during screening where a collaborative decision is made about the level of service that is appropriate (high readiness = self-help services, moderate readiness = brief staff-assisted services, and low readiness = individual case-managed services). The practitioner and individual then collaborate in selecting specific assessment and information resources that will meet his or her needs. After screening, the orientation phase involves the practitioner in helping the individual understand how to use the assessments and information that have been selected. Follow-up allows the opportunity to clarify if the individual’s needs have been met (Sampson, 1986; Sampson, Palmer, & Watts, 1999; Sampson, Reardon, Peterson, & Lenz, 2004).

Availability of Local Counseling Services

There are times when it is necessary for the distance practitioner to collaborate with a local practitioner if the distance practitioner and the individual agree that the nature of the individual’s problem is not amenable to service delivery at a distance. A local practitioner may also become involved in the case of an emergency where crisis intervention is necessary (Heinlen, Welfel, Richmond, & Rak, 2003; Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, 1997).

Practitioner Awareness of Local Conditions, Events, and Cultural Issues

Geographically-remote practitioners may be unaware of location-specific conditions, events, and cultural issues that may influence the individuals they serve at a distance. This lack of awareness on the part of practitioners may limit their credibility with individuals or may result in the use of inappropriate interventions. For example, a geographically-remote practitioner may be unaware of recent local economic problems that are exacerbating an individual’s reaction to typical work and family stressors. Possible differences in local or regional cultural norms between the individual’s and practitioner’s community could result in the practitioner misunderstanding the client. Practitioners need to prepare for remote service delivery by becoming familiar with recent local events and local cultural norms (Hughes, 2000; Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, 1997).

Confidentiality

Confidentiality is violated when one individual gains inappropriate access to another individual’s personal information that was collected during the delivery of services. A violation of confidentiality can occur when a practitioner unintentionally reveals the identity, circumstances, or services provided to an individual. (A practitioner can also intentionally disclose confidential information to an inappropriate third party; however, computer applications make this no more or less of a problem.) The use of computer networks in service delivery results in some unique ethical issues (Bloom, 1998; Hannon, 1996; Sampson & Pyle, 1983; Wall, 2000) as described below.

• E-mail makes it very easy to share confidential information unintentionally with the wrong party by selecting someone else’s e-mail address, or the wrong e-mail address, in place of the address of the intended legitimate recipient (Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, 1997; Stern & Faber, 1997).
• As a result of the data storage capabilities of the computer, a greater amount of data can be maintained for longer periods of time in comparison with traditional storage of print records. It is therefore possible to obtain a great deal of information about an individual over a long time span (Sampson & Pyle, 1983).

Security

Security of an individuals service delivery records can be compromised when a practitioner is careless about the safeguards used to protect personal records.

• The most preventable problem involves practitioners sharing, or leaving visible, passwords to computer files that include personal data (Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, 1997). Security measures only work when practitioners remember to use them (Watkins & Brynes, 1997).
• Failure to encrypt e-mail among practitioners and between the practitioner and the individual makes it easy to read any intercepted messages. Encryption makes it very difficult to virtually impossible to obtain readable messages. Practitioners need to understand and to use encryption software in order to provide appropriate protection from unwanted data access.
• Accessing the Internet makes it possible for unethical persons or criminals to access practitioners’ computers without their knowledge. A firewall can minimize exposure to outside intrusion, but only if practitioners use the protective software that is available.
• Heinlen, Welfel, Richmond, and Rak (2003) noted that if the practitioner cannot guarantee that a Web site for delivering services is secure, the individual and the helping relationship is in jeopardy.

Auditory and Visual Privacy

One advantage of distance delivery of services is that individuals do not have to leave their place of residence in order to receive services. This ease of access provided by distance service delivery is critically important for persons with disabilities who have problems with mobility or persons living in geographically remote communities. This ease of access is also a convenience for others who simply want to avoid the necessity of traveling to an office where traditional services are delivered. However, having constant distractions or being overheard or observed by someone else can easily compromise the effectives of services or lead to serious problems. For example, a client could be harmed by an abusive spouse if the abuser has access to e-mail or voice communications between the practitioner and the individual (Hughes, 2000; Kenny & McEachern, 2004; Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, 1997).

Equality of Access

Equality of access issues exist for individuals with limited incomes and for persons with a disability.

• While the costs of personal computers continue to slowly decline, computers still remain out of reach for millions of people who have limited financial resources. Without ready access to computers, less affluent members of society have difficulty accessing potentially valuable information and services that are available to more affluent individuals (Allen, Sampson, & Herlihy, 1988; Elwork & Gutkin, 1985; Haring-Hidore, 1984; Hoffer & Green, 1985; Ibrahim, 1985; Lee, 2000; Noll & Graves, 1996; Offer & Watts, 1997; Sampson, 1990; 1998; Sampson & Bloom, 2001; Sampson, Kolodinsky, & Greeno, 1997; Wall, 2000; Walz, 1996).
• While considerable progress has been made in the development of adaptive devices that help persons with disabilities to use computers without assistance from others, these adaptive devices need to be readily available in public areas where Internet access is provided. Also, Web sites delivering assessments and information need to be designed in a way that maximizes accessibility for persons with disabilities (Wheaton & Granello; 2004).