Contribution from Jenny Bimrose Institute for Employment Research, University of Warwick

1. What are they?

Parsons (1908) is regarded as the founder of the vocational guidance movement. He developed the `talent matching' approach which was subsequently developed into the trait and factor theory of occupational choice within the evolving discipline of differential psychology. Parsons' core concept was that of `matching'. He suggested that occupational choice occurs when people have achieved:

• first, an accurate understanding of their individual traits (e.g. personal abilities, aptitudes, interests, etc.);
• second, a knowledge of jobs and the labour market;
• and third, made a rational and objective judgement about the relationship between these two groups of facts.

A key assumption is that it is possible to measure both individual talents and the attributes required in particular jobs, which can then be matched to achieve a `good fit'. It is when individuals are in jobs best suited to their abilities, they perform best and productivity is highest.

Two theorists within this broad academic tradition, Rodgers and Holland, have been particularly influential so far as guidance practice in the UK is concerned. Like Parsons, both Rodgers and Holland assumed that matching is at the centre of the process. Vocational choice is viewed essentially as rational and largely devoid of emotions. These choices were also regarded to be `one-off' events.

2. Seven Point Plan

In 1952, Alec Rodger published his `Seven Point Plan'. Originally devised for use in selection interviews, the plan was enthusiastically embraced by guidance trainers and practitioners as a useful model to inform practice. It consists of seven attributes: physical characteristics, attainments, general intelligence, specialised aptitudes, interests, disposition and circumstances. Application of this plan to guidance practice involves first, an evaluation of jobs against these seven attributes; second, assessment of an individual client against these seven attributes to ascertain the extent to which the client is a `good fit'. Only when there is an acceptable match of the two sets of attributes can a recommendation be made by the guidance practitioner to the client that this is an area worth pursuing.

This framework has been used in a number of ways in guidance practice. For example, to assess whether client aspirations for a particular job or career are realistic when reviewed against actual achievements or potential; to generate job ideas for a client who had few or no job ideas; and to analyse jobs, employment and training opportunities.

3. Hierarchy of Orientations

Working within the same philosophical tradition, Holland (1966, 1973, 1985, 1992) developed an occupational classification system that categorises personalities and environments into six model types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional. His ideas still fall broadly within the matching tradition established by Parsons (1908), since he proposed:

• first, that each of his six personality types are related to need and individuals can be categorised in one (or more) of these types;
• second, that work environments can also be classified in this way;
• third that vocational choice involves individuals searching for work environments that are congruent with their personality type.

Subsequent developments of his theory place more emphasis on the interaction of the individual with their environment and the influence of heredity (Holland, 1985, 1992). Holland (1994) noted how he had ‘been renovating the internal structure of [his] own theory (Holland, 1992) to give it more explanatory power’ (p.50). He referred specifically to the way in which he had elaborated his typology to include life goals, values, self-beliefs and problem-solving styles, and how the developmental nature of types over the life-span is now incorporated (Holland, 1994).

Osipow & Fitzgerald (1996) consider Holland’s study of vocational selection and behaviour to be very comprehensive, within his theoretical framework (p.80). They verify how extensive investigations and modifications to the original ideas have been undertaken, yet the theory ‘remained fundamentally unchanged’ (Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1996, p.90). On the 40th anniversary of Holland’s first theoretical statement, the Journal of Vocational Behaviour documented the progression and development of his ideas. In the introduction to this festschrift, Savickas (1999) describes Holland’s contribution as ‘a surpassing achievement in vocational psychology’ (p.2). Continuing this theme, Gottfredson (1999) describes how Holland’s ‘monumental research, theoretical, and practical contributions have irrevocably altered the manner in which career assistance is delivered around the world’ (p.15). It seems unquestionable, therefore, that Holland’s ideas have had, and continue to have, a major impact.

4. Implications for practice

Undoubtedly, trait and factor approaches to careers guidance in the UK have been enormously influential, since they were first developed up to the present day. How can we account for this?

• The dominant influence of differential approaches on the practice of careers guidance in the UK can be explained, partly, by their practical appeal. They provide careers practitioners with a clear rationale and framework for practice. Their role is clearly defined as `expert', with the specialist knowledge about the labour market as well as with the methods to assess individual suitability and capability for the labour market.
• Additionally, and importantly, the underlying philosophy of differential approaches have suited policy makers since they lend themselves to the servicing of labour market requirements. People perform best in the jobs for which they are best suited. Consequently, it has been embraced enthusiastically by policy makers and barely questioned by the majority of practitioners.

5. Critiques

The significant, continuing influence of differential approaches on the practice of careers guidance is acknowledged by Savickas (1997) who claims that: ‘Parson’s paradigm for guiding occupational choice remains to this day the most widely used approach to career counselling’ (p.150). Krumboltz (1994) concurs, suggesting that most current practice is ‘still governed by the three-part theory outlined by Frank Parsons (1909)’ (p.14). However, he is critical of Holland’s influence, attributing current problems with career counselling to the continuing influence of this approach. These problems include the low prestige of the profession, the lack of fit of careers counselling within a particular academic tradition and the absence of any significant input in educational reform (Krumboltz, 1994, p.14).

Increasingly, however, the theory is attracting criticism:

• Mitchell and Krumboltz (1996) criticise its usefulness in current labour market conditions. Matching assumes a degree of stability in the labour market. The volatility of many occupational environments, together with the increased pressure on individuals to change and adapt to their circumstances makes:

'Trying to place an evolving person into the changing work environment .... is like trying to hit a butterfly with a boomerang' (p.263)

• Osipow & Fitzgerald (1996) also highlight the failure of the theory to address the issue of change in environments and individuals. Additionally, they draw attention to problems inherent with the theory’s associated measures for gender, but regard the most serious limitation to be its failure to explain the process of personality development and its role in vocational selection (Osipow & Fitzgerald, 1996, p.104).
• Scharf (1997) reminds us that:

'There is little research supporting or refuting trait and factor theory itself as a viable theory of career development. Rather, the research that has been done, of which there is a large amount, has related traits and factors to one another or has established the validity and reliability of measurements of traits and factors.' (p.26)

Although most of the work on the theory is still concerned with scale validation and relating traits to other individual differences such as personality facets, work values, leisure interests, and modes of thinking (see Armstrong and Anthoney, 2009; Gaudron and Vautier, 2007; Sullivan and Hansen, 2004), some efforts are being undertaken to establish the implications of the theory. For instance, Rottinghaus, Hees and Conrath (2009) found support for the hypothesis that congruence between interests and work environment yield job satisfaction. An interesting finding is that, in many occupations, dissatisfied individual showed a higher position on the Artistic code. Probably, since there exist few artistic occupations, Artistic individuals may be more likely to compromise congruence in their work lives (p. 15).

Research designed to evaluate Holland’s theory for particular client groups also reveals weaknesses. Mobley and Slaney (1998) suggest that although extensive empirical and theoretical investigations have explored the use and relevance of Holland’s theory, ‘considerably less attention has been devoted to investigating the implications of the theory from a multicultural perspective’ (p.126). For example, Leong et al. (1998) studied the cross-cultural validity of Holland’s (1985) theory in India. Whilst its internal validity was found to be high, results regarding external validity were ‘less than encouraging on several fronts’ (p.449). Elosua (2007) affirmed that Holland’s structure was not validated in the Basque population and Long and Tracey (2006) found a small fit in China. Leong et al. (1998) concluded that their findings suggest that culture specific determinants of occupational choice should be studied as alternatives to the ‘Western assumption of vocational interests being the primary determinants’ (p.453).

In their study of gender differences in Holland’s occupational interest types, Farmer et al. (1998) found limitations for the practical applications of the theory for women, concluding that ‘counselors may need to re-evaluate Holland et al.’s advice on consistency and job stability’ (p.91). As well, Proyer and Häusler (2007) advise that the structural assumptions of Holland's theory fit men better than women.

Sexual orientation is an aspect of Holland’s theory that Mobley and Slaney (1998) consider overlooked. In particular, they suggest that the relationship between Holland’s concept of congruence and gay and lesbian development need to be carefully researched. Another relevant aspect neglected in Holland’s ideas is homophobic tendencies both in the workplace and society at large (p.131).

Despite weaknesses, it is likely that the theory will continue to inform practice. Osipow and Fitzgerald (1996) suggest that Holland’s theory ‘will exert an influence on research in career choice for some time and begin to have a growing impact on counseling itself’ (p.105). No viable alternative existed during the first half of this century, and it was not until the 1950’s and 1960’s that theories originating from different branches of psychology like developmental, behavioural and psychodynamic, together with other academic disciplines such as sociology meant that practitioners had other options. 

Recent references:

Armstrong, P. I. and S. F. Anthoney (2009) "Personality facets and RIASEC interests: An integrated model." Journal of Vocational Behavior, in press.

Elosua, P. (2007). "Assessing vocational interests in the Basque Country using paired comparison design." Journal of Vocational Behavior 71(1): 135-145.

Gaudron, J.-P. and S. Vautier (2007). "Analyzing individual differences in vocational, leisure, and family interests: A multitrait-multimethod approach." Journal of Vocational Behavior 70(3): 561-573.

Long, L. and T. J. G. Tracey (2006). "Structure of RIASEC scores in China: A structural meta-analysis." Journal of Vocational Behavior 68(1): 39-51.

Proyer, R. T. and J. Häusler (2007). "Gender Differences in Vocational Interests and Their Stability Across Different Assessment Methods." Swiss Journal of Psychology 66(4): 243-247.

Rottinghaus, P. J., C. K. Hees, et al. "Enhancing Job Satisfaction Perspectives: Combining Holland Themes and Basic Interests." Journal of Vocational Behavior, in press. 

Sullivan, B. A. and J.-I. C. Hansen (2004). "Mapping Associations Between Interests and Personality: Toward a Conceptual Understanding of Individual Differences in Vocational Behavior." Journal of Counseling Psychology 51: 287-298.

6. Annotated References

Farmer et al 1998

Farmer, H., Rotella, S., Anderson, C. & Wardrop, J. (1998) ‘Gender Differences in Science, Math, and Technology Careers: prestige level and Holland interest type’, in Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol.53, No.1. pp 73-96.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Gottfredson 1999

Gottfredson, G.D. (1999) ‘John L. Holland’s contributions to vocational psychology: a review & evaluation’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol.55, No.1.pp15-40.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Holland 1966

Holland, J.L. (1966) The Psychology of Vocational Choice, Waltham, MA: Blaisdell.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Holland 1973

Holland, J.L. (1973) Making Vocational Choices: A theory of careers, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Holland 1985

Holland, J.L. (1985) Making Vocational Choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Holland 1992

Holland, J.L. (1992) (2nd ed) Making Vocational Choices: A theory of vocational personalities and work environments, Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Holland 1994

Holland, J.L. (1994) ‘Separate but unequal is better’, in Savickas, M.L. & Lent, R.L. (Eds) Convergence in Career Development Theories, Palo Alto, California, CPP Books, pp45-53

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Krumboltz 1994

Krumboltz, J.D. (1994) ‘Improving career development theory from a social learning perspective’, in Savickas, M.L. & Lent, R.L. (Eds) Convergence in Career Development Theories, Palo Alto, California, CPP Books, pp9-31

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Leong et al 1998

Leong, F.T.L., Austin, J.T., Sekaran, U. & Komarraju, M. (1998) ‘An evaluation of the cross-cultural validity of Holland’s theory: career choices by workers in India’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 52, No.4. pp441-455.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Leong et al 1998

Leong, F.T.L., Austin, J.T., Sekaran, U. & Komarraju, M. (1998) ‘An evaluation of the cross-cultural validity of Holland’s theory: career choices by workers in India’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol. 52, No.4. pp441-455.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Mitchell et al 1996

Mitchell, L.K. & Krumboltz, J.D. (1996) ‘Krumboltz’s learning theory of career choice and counseling’, in Brown, D., Brooks, L. & Associates (Eds) Career Choice and Development (3rd Ed), San Francisco, California, Jossey Bass, pp223-280.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Mobley et al 1996

Mobley, M. & Slaney, R.B. (1996) ‘Holland’s Theory: its relevance for lesbian women and gay men’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol.48, No.2. pp125-135

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Osipow et al 1996

Osipow, S.H. & Fitzgerald, L.F. (1996) Theories of Career Development (4th Edn), Needham Heights, Massachusetts, Allyn & Bacon.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Parsons 1908

Parsons, F. (1908) Choosing a Vocation, Boston: Houghton Mifflin

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Rodger 1952

Rodger, A. (1952) The Seven Point Plan, London: NIIP.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Savickas 1997

Savickas, M.L. (1997) ‘Constructivist career counseling: models and methods’, Advances in Personal Construct Psychology, Vol.4, No.2. pp149-182.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Savickas 1999

Savickas, M.L. (1999) ‘Introduction: John L. Holland’, Journal of Vocational Behavior, Vol.55, No.1.pp.1-4.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).

Sharf 1997

Sharf, R.S. (1997) Applying Career Development Theory to Counselling, Pacific Grove, California: Brooks/Cole.

Based on differential psychology, these approaches assume that guidance is essentially about a process of rational decision making in which clients are assessed by the 'expert pracitioner' and then matched to the 'best fit' opportunity. It follows that the provision of information about the client and the world of work will result in behaviour change (e.g. improved decision making skills).