1.Definitions

The following definitions highlight different aspects of the transition process:

• A transition is any event or non-event, that results in changed relationships, assumptions & roles.

Schlossberg, 1995

• "Work-role transitions are any major changes in work-role requirements or work context"

Nicholson & West, 1991

• A crisis is a transition or turning point that has significant disruption on established patterns of personal & social identity.

(Moos, R. 1990)

There is an increase in the number of transitions we all need to deal with.People need to adjust to change at many different levels, e.g. marriage, divorce, change of residence, immigration, parenthood, mid-life crisis or in the work area - job changes between or within jobs, employment or unemployment. Rapidly changing conditions mean people often need to take on new roles - planned or unplanned. The study of transitions enables us to focus more closely on this process.

One major transition = end of compulsory education. How this transition is madecan have a significant impact on young people’s sense of identity, their self esteem, view of the world.

2. The current Context

• Government strategy - combat social exclusion, unemployment & skills shortages
• Role of state is to encourage opportunities for participation in education, training or employment through a mixture of carrots & sticks (Watts, 2001).

2.1 Cynicism

'Today we are suffering from vertical & horizontal overload of policies explicitly designed to reach out to... young people in the cause of combating social exclusion & securing its mirror image: active citizenship" Williamson ,H. 2000

3. The Nature of young people's transitions

3.1 School- Work life Transition

• 1950's & 60's
  • clearly demarcated interface 16 between secondary school & training, education or employment.
  • problems regarded as consequence of leavers making wrong job choices.
  • 1979, 47 % of 16 year olds went directly into employment, 5% enrolled on Government supported training schemes
• 1980's onwards
  • school to ‘work, training, education’ transitions are extended over longer
  • period, more complex, multiple, often unpredictable.
  • gender, ethnicity, disability, social class differences & geographical location all interact to constrain opportunities available
  • 1997, 13 % entered employment after completing GCSE's; 9% enrolled on Govt. supported training schemes; 8% not in education, employment or training.

3.2 Young people’s transitions into labour markets :

• Prolonged transitions ( does not mean other thresholds occur at later chronological ages; no upward shift in end of compulsory education, sexual intercourse, leaving home);
• Individualised biographies, set in context of individual life chances.  (Individuals less likely to feel they share experiences & interests in common with larger social groups);
• Impact of opportunity structures
• Uncertain futures, but trends are in line with European wide trends.

Roberts,K.(1997)

3.3 Young People, Transitions & Social Exclusion

• (in-depth study of one disadvantaged housing estate in NE England, 2000)
• Transitions were highly diverse, complex, multiple, non-linear, often disorderly, sometimes unpredictable;
• Early experiences had significant impact on later lives. Engagement in work was often in informal or criminal economy;
• Within context of own neighbourhood, did not feel 'socially excluded', informal networks helped them manage their lives
• Conventional aspirations were held, but chronic lack of employment opportunity meant only a minority achieved this;
• Complexity of label of 'social exclusion' 'constraint' v. 'choice'.

Johnston et al.(2000)

4.Adolescence: a period of transition between 'childhood ' & 'adulthood'

Young people more likely to stay on in FE, HE, training or become unemployed - delaying entry to adult labour market. Definitions of adulthood are complex & boundaries blurred.

4.1 Influences on Young People's approach to decision-making

Self confidence

Development of self efficacy, decision-making skills, access to information. Young people may feel pressure to make one ‘right’ decision. But confusion over their own identity canlead to difficulty in making decisions.

People: Family & peers

Career awareness can be limited if there is no access to adults who model successful employment & networking experiences

Experiences:

Work experience, leisure, voluntary work, informal economy, careers education programmes i.e.reality testing.

4.2 Planned career decision- making?

ESRC study looking at young people who chose to leave FT education at 16/17.

• Post-compulsory education & training policies based on linear trajectory model of progression from education to employment. Shift from stage of considering broad options to clear decision about educational & occupational futures.
• ways young people made decisions were ‘pragmatically rational’, decisions often transitory, affected by opportunities, subjective perceptions, life histories
• decision making = part of the interaction with stakeholders who have influence & bargaining power

Hodkinson, Sparkes & Hodkinson (1996)

4.3 New Approaches to Careers

• traditional career theories relate to a world of more stability & less complexity in the labour market.
• Rather than ‘career planning’, people ‘career improvise’ adapting & engaging in career relevant learning.
• People seldom find their way into one ‘right’ career opportunity, they experiment, as they learn about themselves & the world of work & take up opportunities.
• need toaccumulate 'career competencies'.

Arthur,Inkson & Pringle ,1999

4.4 Post-16 course choice: a challenge for guidance

Study of young people who left P16 education prematurely or switched courses

Some support for the beneficial effects of careers education & guidance;

• Parents, teachers, friends & judgements of young people were more influential on choice of destination than guidance;
• Decisions were made in the context of institutional constraints, which may require premature closure on choices;
• For young people switching is part of testing/ developing self awareness v. resource implications.

 Kidd & Wardman (1999)

4.5Young People's Attitudes to Work, Careers & Learning

Research project investigating attitudes with a sample of 1700, 14/15yr olds in SE England

• Positive, but realistic view of work
• value placed on better work/life balance
• Recognised the importance of continuous learning & value of qualifications
• Boys seemed less aware of workplace changes, challenge of managing own careers;
• How information about work is presented is a challenge. Traditional job titles are less relevant.

RoffeyPark & Institute &Sussex Careers Service (2000)

5 Features of Transitions

5.1     Transitions may be: predictable or unpredictable; positive or negative; entered into voluntarily or involuntary; gradual or sudden.

5.2     Different models have been developed to show how they can follow a predictable course, although this depends on the meaning to each person  (e.g.loss of work may affect people differently depending on the meaning of work to them).

5.1     Generally transitions involve stress, this can be partially controlled or managed.

5.2     Transitions affect individuals differently & each person has a characteristic style of managing anxiety and resolving cognitive tasks.

5.5     People can be helped to adapt and gain from a transition.

6 Models of Transitions

Within the area of guidance there appear to be two broad based and complementary, rather than distinct, approaches to the topic of transitions.

Role shift

A focus on career transition and organisational entry. The career transition literature considers the role transition asa boundary crossing or role shift which is part of a developmental sequence and normally happens in a lifespan e.g. leaving school, starting a job.. It can also be viewed as a movement from one stage to another

Life event/crisis

A focus on the individual coping with major life events or a crisis situation where the person has to develop new methods of dealing with a situation that has arisen unexpectedly. Here the emphasis is on people’s emotions and coping strategies. e.g. death of a family member, being expelled from school.

6.1 Schlossberg's Adult Career Development Transition Model (1995)

This transition model has 3 major parts:

(1) Approaching Transition: Transition identification & transition process.

This focuses on the nature of the change, is it anticipated, unanticipated, how does it change the person’s life, where is the person in the transition. It is suggested counsellors start with client perceptions, as some view where they are in a transition differently than others involved in the same transition

(2) Taking stock of coping resources, The 4 S’s System.

The aim is to identify potential resources the person can draw on to cope with the transition. The 4 S’s refer to: situation, self, support & strategies. Individuals need to take stock of coping resources, their assets/liabilities.

The way the transition is dealt with depends on these 4 variables.

1. Situation : what is happening? This includes factors such as role change, the degree of control one has, timing, source, duration, previous experience of similar events, e.g. job loss is very different to the transition of havinga baby.
2. Self : their personal situation and psychological resources. There are significant individual differences .
3. Support : What help is available? Level & type of support (internal & external) & options vary (e.g. family, individuals, networks, institutions).
4. Strategies : What is the person’s range of coping resources? People navigate transitions in different ways.

(3) Taking Charge : Strengthening Resources

Development & use of new strategies

(4) Implications

• Because more individuals are changing occupations at later stages of their career development, practitioners should be open to clients who want to change & should understand & empathise with the emotions (positive & negative) involved in the transition process
• Because clients who are going through transitions are often experiencing anxiety & emotional upheaval, it is important to provide a safe environment that focuses on the use of listening, attending & focusing skills.
• Because clients involved in transitions often have difficulty in reframing & refocusing their situations, practitioners need to provide new perspectives through interpretation, theme identification & information.
• Because clients involved in transitions usually need assistance in moving on, it is important to help them develop problem-solving, decision-making & coping skills

(Gysbers,Heppner &Johnston, 2003)

6.2 Career Crises & Transition:

 Adams, Hayes & Hopson (1976)developed a model that relates more to people meeting crisis. They proposeda broad conceptual, rather than prescriptive, model of a transitional cycle with seven phases. This represents a cycle of experiencing disruption, acknowledging its reality, then testing & understanding oneself & incorporating changes into ones behaviour. Self esteem varies across these phases and appears to follow a general pattern (also across cultures), although people seldom move in a progressive and orderly fashion. Rather each is unique depending on the meaning of the transition to a person e.g. individuals may move both forward & backward.

The challenge in managing transitions is to develop strategies to prepare for changes and also mechanisms to cope with changes

6.3 The Transition Cycle

The Transition Cycle, adapted from Nicholson & West (1988) provides a more flexible approach to the stages of work-role transitions. This can also be applied to situations where young people are entering a new place of learning or training. Underpinning the model are assumptions that although the stages are distinct, there is a strong interdependence & what happens at one stage has a powerful influence on the next. It is also argued that cycles can recur & have a cumulative effect, so if people experience failure or dissatisfaction at early stages, this can lead to cycles of disaffection. And also the opposite; that successful transitions will work to increase confidence and success.

6.4 Helping Individuals deal with Transition:

The Cormier/Hackney Model (1993) is based on the premise of a guidance or counselling relationship which is developmental and the diagram below shows how it can be integrated with Schlossberg's transition model.

6.5 Loss of paid work

The transition from employment to unemployment provides a potent example of where transition research has direct relevance. The loss of work can seriously affect a person's self concept and the process of adjustment involves a range of adjustments and changes, both in the internal and external world. It is possible to examine this transition as a single process and also in terms of several smaller transitions occurring at different times.

7. Relevance for Guidance

Guidance practitioners are likely to be dealing with clients who are in transition. It is important to understand reactions that are likely to occur during transition, recognise transitional stress & to develop techniques that help individuals cope more effectively with transitions.

The following areas are relevant to guidance practice :

7.1 Preparation:

helping clients prepare for transition

• Initiatives that help prepare young people .e.g. careers education programmes, shift to emphasising employability skills, learning strategies, citizenship
• Peer support strategies e.g. Transition teams
• One-to-one interviews helping people identify ways of moving through the process & develop coping strategies, develop achievable goals.
• Pitching information to deal with the gap between expectations & reality
• Mentoring initiatives

7.2 Understanding:

helping clients comprehend what is happening may help them identify ways of moving through the process and develop their own coping strategies. Cognitive ‘ reframing’ Counselling to help people share their concerns & develop coping mechanisms, develop ‘emotional literacy’

7.3 Skills to help clients cope with transition include:

• Active listening/ empathic skills/ developing a relationship of trust.
• Understanding the issues-Reflecting &questioning / helping client understand  'where you are now'
• Focusing - what the client needs to deal with
• Information & feedback
• Challenging perspectives
• Goal setting - action planning, 'testing out'

7.4 Helping clients to develop coping strategies. Three main approaches have been identified:

• Reinforce existing skills
  Appraise & redefine the meaning of the situation (appraisal-focused)
• Learning new skills
  Focus on practical aspects, aim to change the situation (problem-focused)
  Restoring ability to cope
  Manage feelings, emotions provoked, control stress (emotion-focused)

7.5 The models

The models can help practitioners and clients identify bench marks, help people see experiences as normal without trivialising them. This gives the potential to identify strategies and styles of responses that are most effective for individuals or particular groups in different transitional stages.

7.6. The goal

The goal is to help people use transitions