Contribution from Jenny Bimrose, Institute for Employment Research, University of Warwick.

There is an emerging consensus regarding the inadequacies of theories that inform careers practice. Savickas (1995) relates current problems with theory to the more fundamental issue of different philosophical origins. He identifies inherent tensions which arise from the academic traditions of different theories: ‘sharp lines have been drawn on which philosophy of science to choose’ (Savickas, 1995, p.15). Arguing for theoretical convergence, he concludes that:

As a result of comparing theories, Osipow and Fitzgerald (1996) conclude that they differ not only because of the different philosophical orientations of authors, but also because they are trying to achieve different objectives (p.323). They distinguish those that focus on explanations of the choice process, those that focus on career development over time, and those that focus more on providing practical techniques. A common weakness is their tendency to claim universality for their concepts (p.323).

Two distinct trends in theory development, which sometimes overlap, can be identified.

The first trend  is towards developing theories that attempt to meet the needs of specific client groups, such as minority ethnic groups or girls and women. Traditional theories tend to assume choice and autonomy for the individual, whereas some critics question this as a reasonable assumption for some client groups. For example, Osipow and Littlejohn (1995) discuss serious weaknesses in applying theory to minority ethnic groups. A major problem is the manner in which all theories use concepts which ‘assume cultures that are relatively affluent and have good opportunities for education, upward mobility and family support and encouragement’ (p.255), because many members of minority ethnic groups do not have access to these privileges. Attempts are being made to develop approaches that address the particular issues related to these client groups. Leong (1995), for example, presents theory and research on particular ethnic groups such as Asian Americans, Hispanics and African Americans, and discusses progress towards developing a multicultural theory of career development. In addition to minority ethnic groups, another client group for which the relevance of traditional theories is being questions is girls and women. Emerging theories for this client group are discussed below, in section 4.5.

The second trend in career theory development is towards those characterised by a post-modern approach (Collin and Watts, 1996, Savickas, 1993). Savickas (1993) discusses the general move away from ‘logical positivism, objectivist science, and industrialism’ towards ‘a multiple perspective discourse’ (p.205), summarising key differences between the modern and post-modern era (p.209). Career counselling has produced six notable innovations to mark its entry to the post-modern era. These are, first, a rejection of the notion that careers practitioners are experts: ‘instead of portraying themselves as masters of truth, counselors are creating a space where those involved can speak and act for themselves’ (p.211). Second, the replacement of the concept of ‘fit’ with ‘enablement’, and affirmation of diversity. Third, recognition of the importance of context and culture, together with the broadening of focus beyond pre-occupation with work-role. Together, these signal a move toward life-design counseling and grand narratives (p.212). Fourth, a questioning of the legitimacy of separating career from the personal, with a move toward the greater integration of these two domains. Fifth, the realisation that career theory has provided objective guidance techniques which practitioners have increasingly had to combine with subjective techniques derived from counselling theory for their practice. Embryonic career theories are thus being developed which focus more on meaning, invention and construction, and move towards ‘co-construction or social construction of meaning’ (p.213). Finally, a shift away from objectifying clients by measurement to a preference for autobiography and meaning-making.

Savickas (1993) suggests that changes in career counselling re-define the practitioner as co-authors and editors of career narratives. Instead of diagnosing, assessing and matching, they authorise careers by narrating coherent stories; invest career with meaning by identifying themes and tensions in the story line; and help clients learn the skills necessary for the next episode in the story (p.213).

References:

Collin et al 1996

Collin, A. & Watts, A.G. (1996) ‘The death and transfiguration of career - and career guidance? British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, Vol.24, No.3. pp385-398.

This contribution identifies two distinct trends in career theory development

Leong 1995

Leong, T.L. (1995) (ed) Career Development and Vocational Behaviour of Racial and Ethnic Minorities, Mahway, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates

This contribution identifies two distinct trends in career theory development

Osipow et al 1996

Osipow, S.H. & Fitzgerald, L.F. (1996) Theories of Career Development (4th Edn), Needham Heights, Massachusetts, Allyn & Bacon.

This contribution identifies two distinct trends in career theory development

Osipow et al 1995

Osipow, S.H. & Littlejohn, E.M. (1995) ‘Toward a multicultural theory of career development: prospects and dilemmas’, in Leong, F.T.L. (Ed) Career Development and Vocational Behavior of Racial and Ethnic Minorities, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp251-262.

This contribution identifies two distinct trends in career theory development

Savickas 1993

Savickas, M.L. (1993) ‘Career counseling in the postmodern era’, Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, Vol.7, No.3. pp205-215.

This contribution identifies two distinct trends in career theory development

Savickas 1995

Savickas, M.L. (1995) ‘Current theoretical issues in vocational psychology: convergence, divergence, and schism’, in Walsh, W.B. & Osipow, S.H. (Eds) Handbook of Vocational Psychology: theory, research and practice, (2nd Edn), Mahwah, New Jersey, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp1-34.

This contribution identifies two distinct trends in career theory development