Jenny Bimrose Institute for Employment Research, University of Warwick

1. INTRODUCTION

Fitzgerald and Betz (1994) argue that current career theory may be inadequate for large numbers of clients because of the questionable relevance of the concept of career development, because of the historic neglect of large groups of the population and because it has failed to take proper account of structural and cultural factors (p103). They suggest that we are ignorant about the relevance of career theory for non-white and working-class clients, because we have never tried to find out (p105).

Important issues related to assessment in careers practice with racial and ethnic minority clients are identified by Betz and Fitzgerald (1995). A summary of the main points follows:

a) Career Counselling must take place within a cultural context:

The Western value system that many believe is embedded in guidance practice is finally being questioned. It is important that practice should include knowledge of and respect for the values of other cultures and that practitioners should constantly review their own values and ethnicity. This is essential because important variables in career counselling may covary with ethnicity. For example, the approach a practitioner adopts may be individualistic (i.e. assume choice and control lies with the individual client), and this may clash with the strong family values held by clients from some minority ethnic groups. Additionally, this type of self-awareness on the part of the practitioner is likely to encourage the examination of factors not previously considered. For example, decision-making styles demonstrated by some clients could be viewed as passive and/or dependent; with a working knowledge of different value systems, this could be reconceptualised more positively as indicative of a `collectivist orientation'.

b) Avoidance of Stereotyping

The importance of within as well as between group differences should be acknowledged. We must not assume that ethnic minority groups are homogeneous, nor that ethnic group coincides with racial group.

c) New Variables

New variables need to be incorporated into a culturally competent approach to careers counselling as follows:

racial identity development:includes:

• concept of client preferences regarding counsellor ethnicity;
• perceptions of the openness of the occupational structure;
• client responsiveness to counsellor suggestions.

Of course, the racial identity of each practitioner affects the responses of careers counsellors to certain clients.

acculturation:

Refers to the level of acceptance/integration into the self of the values of the dominant culture.

language usage:

English as a second language. Extent to which an individual is able to use his/her native language influences assessment and intervention in careers counselling.

d )Race/Ethnicity and Gender

Race and gender must be considered in interaction. In research, there has been a tendency to separate. Minority women, in this sense, have been invisible. The reality of the situation of ethnic minority women is one of double disadvantage - socially and economically, referred to as `double jeopardy'. An important feature of this interaction is the extent of differences in gender-role socialisation and expectations of women's adult roles across groups. For example, the extent to which women are expected to work outside the home as adults differs across groups. An important task for careers guidance may be to help clients to integrate the sometimes contradictory forces of cultural values and personal beliefs and goals.

Gainor and Forrest's model (1991) is proposed as a possible way in which women can be helped to integrate rather than separate their gender and racial identities. It includes helping clients towards a knowledge of themselves first as female, second, as a member of an ethnic minority and third, as an unique individual.

The study of women's career development is also useful. For example, it can help with an understanding of:

• the need to value the family as well as career;
• perceptions of occupations being closed to women;
• the perniciousness of the `Old Boys'' Network;
• the difficulty of finding quality child care;
• the susceptibility of all women to sex discrimination, sexual harassment and violence.

Overall, the practitioner needs to be familiar with both women and minority ethnic group career development.

e) Inadequacy of Current Knowledge

2) CAREER MODEL FOR MINORITY ETHNIC GROUPS

Fouad and Bingham (1995) propose a `culturally appropriate career counseling model' (p344). In order for practitioners to implement this model successfully, they argue that practitioners must:

1. 1st:become multiculturally competent, as defined by Sue et al (1995, p624).
2. 2nd:achieve an understanding of worldviews (Sue & Sue, 1990, p137).
3. 3rd:acquire knowledge about racial ethnic identify development. Cross (1994, p122) is proposed as one such relevant model of ethnic identity development. This consists of a four stage development process:

Pre-change:

the individual does not want to be described in racial terms, preferring to be seen as a human being. Being Black is somewhat insignificant.

Encounter:

the individual begins to question the previous belief system of stage 1. Feels they have been miseducated, and that they are not Black enough.

Transition:

a period of metamorphosis, when the old identity and the emerging identity do battle. A period of extreme highs and lows. High energy, when the enemy is identified as White people and White society.

Internalisation:

as the individual's life situation changes, s/he will begin to question such unequivocal stands and will become more internally secure, more pluralistic, and more appreciative of all ethnic groups. The person eventually develops greater comfort and the new identify is internalised.

The client's stage of development may have implications for his or her career aspirations and expectations, so it is important for the careers practitioner to assess the stage of development of minority ethnic clients.

Culturally Appropriate Career Counselling Model

Fouad and Bingham (1995, p344) have developed a seven step model for working with minority ethnic clients:

Step 1:

establish rapport/culturally appropriate relationship.

Listen and observe clients' comments, learn how they wish to be related to; respond to client's main words and construct and check out statements with the clients.

Step 2:

identification of the career issues that the client brings: cognitive, social, emotional (e.g. panic attacks at work), environmental (e.g. working conditions, co-workers), behavioural (e.g. client being short-tempered at work), external barriers (e.g.discrimination, oppression, racism, sexism, financial concerns).

Critical to the model is the explicit definition of external barriers because, for many minority clients, career choice is a matter of balancing those factors within their control with those outside their control.

Step 3:

assess the impact of cultural variables on career issues.

For example, the impact a decision might have on the client's family and consequences for the client if s/he disappoints their parents. The meaning gender might have for the client.

Step 4:

set culturally appropriate processes and goals.

For example, inappropriate goals may include career choices based on self-actualization rather than on pragmatism.

Step 5:

determining and implementing a culturally appropriate intervention: cognitive, social emotional, environmental, behavioural, external barriers).

For example, use group intervention with those minority members who operate in a framework that is more collectivistic than individualistic. Involve the family in career decision making. Use race and gender appropriate role models to expand awareness of opportunities. Present interventions in native languages when appropriate and possible. Also, depending on the racial identity of the client, the most effective counselling will be conducted by a counsellor of the same race or ethnicity.

Step 6:

helping the client make a culturally appropriate decision.

Clients may be making career choices, deciding to adjust their work roles or deciding they need more information. As they begin to implement plans, some may choose to cycle back through career counseling to work on different goals. Practitioners need to be open to this process since many minority clients will not see counselling as a linear, rational decision-making process.

Step 7:

implementation of the client's plans and follow-up.

It may be important to encourage the client to return, if the need arises. This may be difficult since some clients may regard return as failure (and possible loss of face).

CONCLUSION

In common with many others, Osipow and Littlejohn (1995) identify what they consider to be weaknesses in current theory for minority ethnic groups, and suggest how we might revise current approaches. To make them work better, it is suggested that we need to learn from work done on career development for women: more variables, therefore individual variables assume less importance (because they have less weight in sum total of variables).

Perhaps it is time to create career theories that try to describe career development and choice as it is and not as we think it should be. Such a shift might produce more powerful career concepts for all kinds of people (p256)

REFERENCES

Betz et al 1995

Betz, N.E. & Fitzgerald, L.F. (1995) `Career Assessment and Intervention with Racial and Ethnic Minorities', in Leong, F. Career Development & Vocational Behaviour of Racial and Ethnic Minorities, Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cross 1994

Cross, W.E. (1994) Nigrescence Theory: Historical and Explanatory Notes in Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 44, 119-123.

Fitzgerald et al 1994

Fitzgerald, L.F. & Betz, N.E. (1994) Career Development in Cultural Context: the role of gender, race, class, and sexual orientation in Savickas, M.L. & Lent, W. (eds) Convergence in Career Development Theories: implications for science and practice, Palo Alto, California:CPP Books.

Fouad et al 95

Fouad, N.A. & Bingham, R.P. (1995) Career counseling with racial and ethnic minorities in Walsh, W.B. & Osipow, S.H. (eds) Handbook of Vocational Psychology: theory, research and practice, Mahway, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Osipow et al 1995a

Osipow, S. H. & Littlejohn, E.M. (1995) `Toward a Multicultural Theory of Career Development: Prospects and Dilemmas', in Leong, F. Career Development & Vocational Behaviour of Racial and Ethnic Minorities, Mahwah, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Sue 1990

Sue, D.W. (1990) Counselling the Culturally Different: Theory and Practice, New York, John Wiley and Sons

Sue et al 1995

Sue, D.W., Arredondo, P., & McDavis, R.J. (1995) Multicultural Counseling Competencies and Standards: a call to the profession, in Handbook of Multicultural Counseling, Ponterotto, J.G., Casas, J.M., Suzuki, L.A. and Alexander, C. M., Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications.