Contribution from Jenny Bimrose, Institute for Employment Research, University of Warwick.

1. Introduction

The significant and continuing influence of differential approaches on the practice of careers guidance is acknowledged by Savickas (1997) who claims that:

Krumboltz (1994) concurs, suggesting that most current practice is 'still governed by the three-part theory outlined by Frank Parsons (1909)' (p14). Various reasons probably account for their popularity, for example:

Practical appeal:

the matching paradigm inherent in this approach provides careers guidance practitioners with a clear rationale and framework for practice, positioning them as 'experts' in the guidance process.

Measurable outcomes:

the underlying philosophy has suited policy makers since it lends itself to the servicing of labour market requirements and provides accountability (outcomes can be measured).

It is perhaps not surprising, therefore, that this approach has been embraced enthusiastically by policy makers and barely questioned by the majority of practitioners. The theory contains, however, fatal flaws. Scharf (1997) reminds us that:

In addition to problems with particular theories, criticisms are increasingly being applied to other theories, which currently underpin practice. Three are briefly discussed below.

2. Sample bias

Scrutiny of the research populations from which current theory has been developed reveals a strong bias in terms of ethnicity, gender and age. Research conducted by Richie et al (1997) 'confirms the inappropriateness of applying career theories written by and based on White men to White women and people of colour' (p145). Hackett (1997) observes that in order to achieve real progress in theory development, research groups should include ethnic minority women, younger people and representatives of other dimensions of diversity (p186).

3. Philosophy of science

Theories informing current guidance practice have been developed mainly by psychologists operating from scientific positivist paradigms of research. This has led to:

Neglect of Context:

Brooks and Forrest (1994) remind us that psychologists have produced most research data available in the area of vocational choice. They highlight an inherent weakness in the approach of psychologists who prefer to separate the individual from the context in which she exists. This, they argue is a particular weakness when studying some client groups, like girls and women.

Dominance of quantitative research methods:

A number of writers have commented on the (relative) lack of data from qualitative research, which has informed practice. Edwards and Payne (1997) state that there is a need 'to embrace ideas from a wider moorland of study than is presently the case' (p537). Hackett (1997) reviews criticisms made in the existing literature on women's career development. She argues that there is a need to move beyond 'simple correlational designs' (p184) and suggests that qualitative research methods 'are highly appropriate in attempts of this sort to truly understand the experiences of a group that has received insufficient attention' (p185). Rainey and Borders (1997) advocate the use of narratives, constructivist methods or other qualitative approaches to examine environmental factors for girls and women (p169).

4. Labour Market Changes

Changes to the structure of the labour market have been well documented. Mitchell and Krumboltz (1996) remind us how occupational environments are becoming more fluid, with one consequence being increased insecurity for employees. Flexibility has become a key skill and job descriptions have become more outcome oriented and less task oriented. They also argue that matching individuals to particular environments assumes that individuals do not change, whereas in reality, individuals constantly change and develop. They conclude that 'trying to place an evolving person into the changing work environment is like trying to hit a butterfly with a boomerang' (p263).

Conclusion

As a result of comparing theories, Osipow and Fitzgerald (1996) conclude that they differ not only because of the different philosophical orientations of authors, but also because they are trying to achieve different objectives (p323). They distinguish those that focus on:

• explanations of the choice process,
• career development over time, and
• providing practical techniques.

A common weakness of traditional theories, they argue, is their tendency to claim universality for their concepts (Osipow and Fitzgerald, 1996, p323).

References

Brooks etal 1994

Brooks, L. & Forrest, L. (1994) Feminism and Career Counseling, in Walsh, W.B. & Osipow, S.H. (eds) Career Counseling for Women, Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Established theories are popular with practitioners, but are thought to have certain weaknesses. So what, exactly, is wrong with them?

Edwards et al 1997

Edwards, R. & Payne, J. (1997) The self in guidance: assumptions and challenges in British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 25, 4, p527-538.

Established theories are popular with practitioners, but are thought to have certain weaknesses. So what, exactly, is wrong with them?

Hackett 1997

Hackett, G. (1997) Promise and Problems in Theory and Research on Women's Career Development: Comment on Lucas (1997), Richie et al. (1997), McCracken and Weitzman (1997), Rainey and Borders (1997), and Schaefers, Epperson, and Nauta (1997) in Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 2, p184-188.

Established theories are popular with practitioners, but are thought to have certain weaknesses. So what, exactly, is wrong with them?

Krumboltz 1994

Krumboltz, J.D. (1994) ‘Improving career development theory from a social learning perspective’, in Savickas, M.L. & Lent, R.L. (Eds) Convergence in Career Development Theories, Palo Alto, California, CPP Books, pp9-31.

Established theories are popular with practitioners, but are thought to have certain weaknesses. So what, exactly, is wrong with them?

Mitchell et al 1996

Mitchell, L.K. & Krumboltz, J.D. (1996) Krumboltz's Learning Theory of Career Choice and Counseling in Brown, D., Brooks, L. & Associates (eds) (3rd edition) Career Choice and Development San Francisco, California: Jossey Bass

Established theories are popular with practitioners, but are thought to have certain weaknesses. So what, exactly, is wrong with them?

Osipow et al 1996

Osipow, S.H. & Fitzgerald, L.F. (1996) (4th Ed) Theories of Career Development, Needham Heights, Mass: Allyn & Bacon.

Established theories are popular with practitioners, but are thought to have certain weaknesses. So what, exactly, is wrong with them?

Rainey et al 1997

Rainey, L.M. & Borders, L.D. (1997) Influential Factors in Career Orientation and Career Aspiration of Early Adolescent Girls in Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 2, p160-172.

Established theories are popular with practitioners, but are thought to have certain weaknesses. So what, exactly, is wrong with them?

Richie et al 1997

Richie, B.S., Fassinger, R.E., Linn, S.G. & Johnson, J. (1997) Persistence, Connection, and Passion: Achieving African American-Black and White Women in Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 2, p135-148.

Established theories are popular with practitioners, but are thought to have certain weaknesses. So what, exactly, is wrong with them?

Savickas 1997

Savickas, M.L. (1997) Constructivist Career Counseling: Models and Methods, in Advances in Personal Construct Psychology, 4, p149-182.

Established theories are popular with practitioners, but are thought to have certain weaknesses. So what, exactly, is wrong with them?

Sharf 1997

Sharf, R.S. (1997) Applying Career Development Theory to Counseling, Pacific Grove, California: Brooks/Cole.

Established theories are popular with practitioners, but are thought to have certain weaknesses. So what, exactly, is wrong with them?