Research into the effects of sexual orientation on career development

Introduction

Zunker (1994, 1998) includes a brief discussion of the effects of sexual orientation on career development in sections titled 'Lesbian Women' and 'Gay Men'. He suggests that there is a growing trend for more open discussion, with Kronenberger (1991), for example, reporting that more lesbian women and gay men are coming out of the closet and discussing issues they face - especially in the workplace.  In employment, gay men and lesbians are creating support networks, educating co-workers and pushing for reforms for benefits and freedom to move up the career ladder.  However, there are many homosexuals who don't identify with being gay, and find it easier to assimilate into a heterosexual workplace.

Negative bias and discrimination against homosexuals can be very intense.  Despite high profile cases that are increasingly reported by the media in the UK, issues surrounding homosexuality in general and its effect on career development and workplace behaviour are unclear. Zunker cites research by Hetherington & Orzeck (1989) which suggests that lesbian women are more satisfied with their career choices than gay men and heterosexual men and women. Other research by Hetherington, Hillerbrand & Etringer (1989) indicates that gay men appear to have less certainty about their career choice and less job satisfaction with their career than gay women and heterosexual men and women. However, the research evidence is scant, so that the conclusions about adaptability in the workplace, self-concept, career development can only be very tentative.

Eldridge (1987) provides the following recommendations for (career) counsellors:

• keep in mind the subtle, insidious nature of heterosexual bias and use this knowledge as a reminder for reflection;
• use gender-free language; 
• become familiar with models of homosexual identity formation;
• identify an experienced counsellor who can provide helpful information or feedback on working with gay men and lesbians;
    become familiar with local support networks.

In December, 1995, the American Journal Career Development Quarterly published a special edition entitled 'Gay/Lesbian Career Development'.  Brief summaries of key points from three articles included in this edition by Pope (1995), Prince (1995) and Fassinger (1995) follow.

Synopsis of practice knowledge and research needs (Pope 1995).

Pope (1995) has reviewed the existing (limited) literature related to careers guidance and counselling for gay men and lesbian clients.  He summarises the recommendations from 31 general articles, as well as 15 articles, which focus more particularly on strategies, and techniques appropriate with homosexual clients. Despite the fact that a body of empirical research of sufficient breadth and depth does not yet exist which would enable us to identify clearly practices which are most effective, Pope argues that the rapidly expanding data-base (mainly derived from clinical observations and anecdotal evidence) provides useful indicators for practice. The nine most recommended interventions are identified as follows:

• The need for practitioners to become familiar with models of homosexual identity formation. In assisting with the planning of careers, it is essential for practitioners to understand the special development stages in the lives of lesbian and gay clients.
• Openly discussing coming out in the workplace. 60% of the reviewed articles recommended that practitioners help clients to consider the advantages and disadvantages of coming out in the workplace (or refer to another professional). 
• Examining own biases. 46.7% of articles recommended that practitioners examine their own biases relating to homosexuality.  This will be the basis of any effective relationship with clients.  Professional ethics literature also stresses this as essential. 
• Openly discussing employment discrimination. Discrimination against homosexuals is commonplace.  Practitioners who fail to recognise this and do not assist their clients in coping with this reality do a disservice to their clients. 
• Special assessment procedures. Special procedures are recommended for using psychological tests with gays and lesbians.  E.g. not coming out for a gay man or lesbian woman may mask a true understanding of self and therefore could be a source of distortion on self-report inventories. 
• Work with both individuals on dual-career couple issues. Several authors highlight the issues facing homosexual couples e.g. geographical location, lifestyle issues, situations that may arise at work in which the partner needs to be involved. Many recommend that it may be appropriate to involve both partners in career counselling. 
• Gay and Lesbian Affirmative. 33.3% of articles recommended that practitioners working with this client group should be affirmative - advocating on behalf of clients and working to change discriminatory systems.  Those who are not affirmative in their approach should refer. 
• Helping clients overcome internalised negative stereotypes. It is important for practitioners to understand the concept of internalised homophobia for gay and lesbian clients, since this is likely to affect occupational choice.  Societal messages constantly repeated about 'evil, sick and sinful' people may be believed and accepted at some level by homosexuals. This is likely to effect their view of careers. 
• Supporting & encouraging gay and lesbian professionals as role models. Occupational role models and networking are important for clients who have been historically limited in their occupational choices by some types of societal stereotyping e.g. gay men as hairdressers, air stewards, florists, dancers, actors and nurses; lesbian women as HGV drivers, athletes and mechanics.  The suggestion is that practitioners actively encourage and support professionals as role models for clients.

Practitioner interventions recommended by the literature are directed at:   

• practitioners themselves (awareness);
• procedures (skills & procedures); 
• social-community action (advocacy & systems change).

Note: Both quantitative and qualitative research needs to be undertaken on the types of special interventions that are empirically justified for lesbian and gay populations.

Influences on the career development of gay men (Prince 1995) .

Prince (1995) presents a review of several theories that have been proposed that describe gay male identify.  He argues that these models can provide a framework for highlighting implications for career development. A fundamental influence on the career development of gay men relates to sexual identity development - a process that occurs concurrently with the formation of one's career identity. These theories involve sequential stages in the transformation of attitudes, values, beliefs, and behaviours from those of the dominant (heterosexual) culture to the minority (gay) culture. Latter stages describe gay identity as an aspect of a person's internal definition and social presentation of self. The following similarities across all the theories are identified: 

• Nearly all models view gay identity formation against a back-drop of stigma.
• Gay identities develop over long periods of time and involve a number of growth points or changes that may be ordered into stages (i.e. identity confusion, coming out, exploration and integration). 
• Gay identity formation involves an increasing acceptance of the label homosexual or gay as applied to self. 
• Models describe individuals as increasingly interested in disclosing their sexual identity to members of an expanding series of audiences.  So - the coming-out process is a lifelong, developmental process.
• Gay men develop increasingly personalised and frequent social contacts with other gay men over time.

These models have been criticised for being linear, as well as for their insensitivity to ethnicity, age, class, etc. Nevertheless, they do provide some understanding of how integral sexual identity is to career identity.  This is particularly so if a view is adopted which suggests that career development is a lifelong process.

Lesbian identity in the workplace Fassinger (1995)

Fassinger (1995) presents two models of identity development for homosexuals [Sophie (1985/1986) and Chapman and Brannock (1987)]and points to the need for a newer model [McCarn & Fassinger (1996)].

Sophie (1985/1986) model of four stages of development:

• First awareness of homosexual feelings or the relevance of homosexuality to oneself, with no disclosure to others.
• Testing and exploration, with the assumptions that relationships do not yet occur, that testing precedes identity acceptance, and that disclosure to heterosexuals is limited or non-existent.
• Identity acceptance, involving a preference for gay social interactions and limited disclosure to heterosexuals. 
• Identity integration, including first a dichotomous (gay-non-gay) view of the world and pride in one's homosexual identity, followed by stability of identity and widespread disclosure.

Chapman and Brannock (1987) five-stage process by which lesbians come to self-label:

• Same-sex orientation, characterised by feeling different about other girls and women, but lacking a name for those feelings.
• Incongruence, including recognition that feelings may be non-heterosexual, social isolation, and confusion about heterosexual dating.
• Self-questioning and exploration, involving strong bonds with or attraction to other girls and women, feeling right about a relationship with a woman, and possible exploration of heterosexuality.
• Identification, characterised by thinking or feeling 'I am lesbian'. 
• Choice of lifestyle, characterised by a decision to seek women as long-term partners, or maintaining a lesbian orientation without choosing women as long-term partners.       

Fassinger argues that none of the existing development models take sufficient account of environmental context.

McCarn & Fassinger (1996) model of identity formation:

• Awareness, at the individual level involving an awareness of feeling different from the heterosexual norm, and at the group level involving awareness of different sexual orientations and the existence of heterosexism.
• Exploration, at the individual level involving strong (often erotic) feelings about or a relationship with another woman (or women) and at the group level involving assessing one's feelings about lesbians as well as possible membership in that group.
• Deepening & commitment, involving crystallisation of choices about individual intimacy and sexuality, as well as increasing commitment tot he lesbian and gay community.
• Internalisation and synthesis of same-sex love and desire and membership in an oppressed group into the overall self-concept.

An individual may remain 'closeted' for contextual reasons and still be developmentally mature.

References

• Fassinger, R.E. (1995) From Invisibility to Integration: Lesbian Identify in the Workplace, in The Career Development Quarterly, Vol 44, 2, p 148-167
• McCarn, S. R. & Fassinger, R. E. (1996). Revisioning sexual minority identity formation: A new model of lesbian identity and its implications for counseling and research. Counseling Psychologist, 24, 508-534.
• Pope, M. (1995) Career Interventions for Gay and Lesbian Clients: A Synopsis of Practice Knowledge and Research Needs in The Career Development Quarterly, Vol. 44, 2, p 191-203.
• Prince, J.P. (1995) Influences on the Career Development of Gay Men, in The Career Development Quarterly, Vol 44, 2, p 168-177.
• Zunker, V.G. (1994) (4th ed) Career Counseling: Applied Concepts of Life Planning, Pacific Grove, California: Brooks/Cole
• Zunker, V.G. (1998) (5th ed) Career Counseling: Applied Concepts of Life Planning, Pacific Grove, California: Brooks/Cole

Multicultural Counselling

Most career counselling and guidance practitioners would readily acknowledge that each client is unique, and that individual differences must be accepted and respected.  However, practice often reflects the asssumption that a particular interviewing approach is transferable across a wide range of clients.  Multicultural counselling challenges this view.

Multiculture counselling defines 'culture' as being multidimensional.  That is 'culture' should not only denote race and ethnic origin, but take into account other variables including sexual orientation.

More information can be found in the Improving Practice section of the site under multicultural counselling.