Gibbs (1994) argues that the phenomenographic model is highly influential in the learning literature, with the concepts of 'surface' and 'deep' learning (together with their relationship to the quality of the outcome) that derive from this approach a much-quoted source (Marton and Saljo, 1976). In this theory, learning is considered from the point-of-view of the learner, rather than the teacher. The focus is on how students interpret content - expressed as the relationship that the 'knower' (i.e. student) sets up with the known (i.e. learning material).

Usually, learner interpretations can be expressed hierarchically, with some learners having partial or distorted conceptions of the intended topic and others having sophisticated ones. Learners may 'understand' (more or less) the teacher's perspective, but they genuinely learn only what they have interpreted, or constructed, from their own perspective. Their approach to learning is expressed in how they go about that construction. Consequently, in this theory of learning, the student's understanding of the learning task and their construction of learning is crucially important.

This approach also emphasises the importance of context.  It argues that learning (and teaching) are dependent on the context in which learning takes place.  Marton (1988) is reluctant to consider learning as a process that is, in any way, independent from learning - arguing that teaching and learning are integral and inter-dependent.

Phenomenography derives from phenomenlogy - which takes as the only reality the student's immediate perception of the task.  Overlap with other (student and teacher) perceptions are not considered relevant. Gibbs (1994) suggests that there are two consequences arising from this:

a) individual personality factors are of marginal importance, since they may affect the immediate phenomenal space of the student, but how they do so is not relevant;

b) it becomes impossible to generalise across teaching/learning situations. If each individual's perspective is unique, it follows that an infinite number of perspectives exist.

References:

• Gibbs, G. (1994) Improving Student Learning:Theory and Practice, Oxford Centre for Staff Development, Oxford. 
• Marton, F. (1988) 'Describing and improving learning', in R.R. Schmeck (ed), Learning strategies and learning styles. New York: Plenum. 
• Marton, F. & Salijo, R. (1976) On qualitative differences in learning - I: Outcomes and process. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 4-11.