This approach has been very influential in developing our understanding about learning. For Behaviourists, learning represents a process of `stimulus-response' (S-R learning). This is referred to as 'conditioning' and there are two variants: 'classical' and 'operant' conditioning.

Classical conditioning occurs when the learner is conditioned to give the same response to a particular stimulus. Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, developed a surgical technique whereby a dog's salivary secretions could be collected in a tube attached to the outside of its cheek, so the drops of saliva could be easily measured. In the course of his experiments, Pavlov noticed that the dogs would often start salivating before any food was given to them (that is, when they looked at the food or saw the feeding bowl, etc.). He called the sight and smell of food the 'conditional' stimulus and the salivation the 'unconditional' response.

Then Pavlov introduced a second stimulus - a bell. After presenting the food and the sound of the bell to the dogs together on several occasions, he presented the sound of the bell alone. He discovered that this new stimulus consistently produced the same unconditional response (salivation). By associating the food with a conditioned stimulus (in this case a bell) - which normally does not produce the response - Pavlov had discovered the basic principle of what became known as classical conditioning.

The first attempt to apply Pavlov's findings to humans was made by J.B. Watson, the founder of Behavioursim. Controversially, Watson succeeded in inducing fear in a young child through association (i.e. by classical conditioning).

Operant conditioning occurs when the learner is conditioned to give a different response to the same stimulus. Skinner regarded the learner as more of an active participant than Pavlov or Watson. In operant conditioning things are much less certain. Behaviour arises from with humans (or animals) rather than resulting from external stimulus and is regarded as voluntary. So, new behaviour (and learning) doesn't occur instantly, but has to be 'shaped' - by using 'positive' and 'negative' reinforcement. This shaping occurs all the time in verbal communication (for example, smiling to encourage others to smile back).

Overall, Behaviourists are relatively unconcerned with processes that are internal to the individual. They are more concerned with the reaction to a particular stimulus. Cotton (1995) argues that, although much of the early research in this area was carried out on animals, the principles of learning that come from the research have been applied to human learning (for example, skills training, assertiveness training). In the school setting, techniques like giving house points, stars or ticks and praise from the teacher come from this theory of learning.

References:

• Cotton, J. (1995) The Theory of Learning: An Introduction, London, Kogan Page.  
• Desforges, C. (ed) (1995) An Introduction to Teaching: a Psychological Perspective, Oxford: Blackwell.